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Prehistoric and Ancient Kyowara
先史時代と古代
The first hunter-gatherers are believed to have reached the Kyonese territories during the Paleolithic period, with the earliest traces of human activity dating back approximately 38,000 to 40,000 years. Due to the highly acidic nature of Kyowara’s soil, few skeletal remains have survived from this era. Nevertheless, the unearthing of distinctive edge-ground stone axes, dated to over 30,000 years ago, is thought to mark the arrival of early Homo sapiens in the region. It is widely accepted that these pioneering peoples traversed the seas to Kyowara using primitive watercraft from what is today known as Skanda. Archaeological evidence from Inoto Cave in Kaito, dated to around 32,000 years ago, and from Eikowa Nobibaru Cave on Daijima Island, dated to approximately 20,000 years ago, further attests to early human settlement. Moreover, there is compelling evidence that Kyowara’s Paleolithic inhabitants engaged with and hunted now-extinct species of megafauna, including the mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) and and extinct species of large birds named Tukais (Raphus tucaicatus). Eruptions of Daichi and Suro calderas caused the southern parts of Kyowara to be uninhabitable for 800 years.
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Kōgen Era
高原時代
The Kōgen Period (c. 14,000 BCE – 300 BCE) occupies a significant and foundational place in Kyonese prehistory. It spans a remarkably long era, divided into various phases, and represents a time when Kyowara was inhabited by a people whose way of life was primarily defined by hunting, gathering, fishing, and a gradual, modest transition towards sedentism. The term "Kōgen" itself, meaning "plateau people" in Kyonese, is derived from the lands which they inhabited frequently — being highlands and meadows. This period is marked not by dramatic shifts but by steady evolution, a testament to the enduring resilience and adaptability of human societies in the face of environmental and societal challenges.
The Kōgen Period is typically divided into six subperiods by modern scholars, based on changes in pottery styles and settlement patterns:
Incipient Kōgen (c. 14,000–7500 BCE)
Initial Kōgen (c. 7500–4000 BCE)
Early Kōgen (c. 4000–2500 BCE)
Middle Kōgen (c. 2500–1500 BCE)
Late Kōgen (c. 1500–1000 BCE)
Final Kōgen (c. 1000–300 BCE)
Each of these phases reflects subtle yet important shifts in technology, economy, and social structure, all while maintaining a core cultural continuity.
The Kōgen Period began in the wake of the last Frost Age. Rising global temperatures led to the formation of a temperate and humid climate across the Kyonese lands. Forests of broad-leaved deciduous trees became widespread, and marine resources flourished along the coasts and rivers. These favourable environmental conditions enabled human groups to settle in relatively stable locations rather than leading strictly nomadic existences, as had been the case in earlier Paleolithic times. Nonetheless, the Kōgen people remained highly attuned to the cycles of nature, maintaining a deep respect for seasonal rhythms.
The economic base of the Kōgen society was diversified and flexible, incorporating hunting, fishing, gathering, and a limited degree of cultivation. Deer, wild boar, fish, shellfish, nuts, and fruits formed the staples of their diet. The richness of the environment allowed for a degree of sedentism unusual for societies reliant upon hunting and gathering. Shell middens, or ancient refuse heaps, are a key archaeological feature of the period. These middens reveal much about Kōgen diets, tools, and settlement patterns. The Kōgen people settled around highlands, used stone and brass tools and their diets were meat-heavy. They also provide early evidence of plant management and, to a limited extent, the domestication of plants such as chestnuts and mushrooms. However, agriculture, as it would later be practised in the Soru Period, was not yet widespread.
Pottery is perhaps the most iconic artefact of Kōgen culture. The earliest vessels were simple, often pointed at the base to allow for stability when set into soft ground. Over time, the pottery became increasingly elaborate, particularly during the Middle Kōgen Period. Vessels were adorned with complex cord-marked patterns, rope-like decorations, and even sculptural forms representing flames, animals, and human figures. The craftsmanship demonstrated by Kōgen artisans indicates not merely a utilitarian function but a sophisticated aesthetic sensibility. Pottery was used for cooking, storage, and ritual purposes, reflecting a society in which symbolic and spiritual dimensions were deeply woven into everyday life. The earlier deities which the Kōgen people were believed to be worshippers of were mostly made of clay, the Fukuyama Woman being one of the oldest surviving idols from the prehistoric Kōgen religion.
Contrary to outdated assumptions of primitive egalitarianism, recent research suggests that Kōgen society may have been more complex. Evidence of differentiated burials, elaborate grave goods, and variations in dwelling size point to the existence of social stratification, albeit in an embryonic form. Villages often consisted of pit dwellings arranged around central open spaces, implying an organised and communal lifestyle. Some larger settlements indicate the development of regional hubs, possibly serving ritual or political functions. Nonetheless, kinship and clan relationships likely remained central to social organisation.
Spirituality played a vital role in Kōgen life. Numerous dogū (clay figurines) have been unearthed, often depicting stylised human forms, possibly representing fertility, shamanistic practices, or protective deities. The exact function of these figurines remains a matter of scholarly debate, but their widespread presence underscores a rich and complex religious life. Stone circles and ritual sites, such as the remarkable Toshiro-Minamikawachi site in Iwa State, further suggest that the Kōgen people engaged in communal religious ceremonies. These practices were deeply intertwined with the cycles of nature and the necessity of maintaining harmony with the surrounding environment.
Kōgen tools reflect ingenuity adapted to local conditions. Stone tools, including axes, arrowheads, and grinding stones, were finely crafted. Bone, antler, and shell were also employed to create hooks, needles, and ornaments. Unlike later periods, the Kōgen people did not practise metalworking. Nevertheless, their mastery of available materials reflects a sophisticated understanding of their properties and potential applications. The emphasis on quality craftsmanship and durable goods is a recurring theme across all phases of the period.
Despite the insularity often attributed to ancient Kyowara, there is evidence of interregional contact during the Kōgen Period. Obsidian from distant sources, shell bracelets from the Hosonagai Island, and similar artefacts indicate the existence of long-distance trade networks. Cultural exchange, while limited compared to later historical periods, played a role in sustaining and enriching the Kōgen way of life, especially with tribes of the south, which are believed to be the predecessors of Moake’ans. The Final Kōgen Period was characterised by considerable environmental and social challenges. Climatic cooling and rising sea levels resulted in reduced agricultural potential and more difficult living conditions. Concurrently, new influences, particularly from Skanda and Aria, began to arrive. These external contacts heralded the gradual end of the Kōgen Period and the beginning of the Soru Period (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE), marked by the introduction of wet-rice agriculture, metallurgy, and more hierarchical social structures. Nevertheless, it is important to recognise that the transition was gradual and that elements of Kōgen culture persisted for centuries, particularly in remote regions.
The Kōgen Period bequeathed to Kyowara a legacy of profound spiritual sensitivity, artistic accomplishment, and harmonious coexistence with nature. It embodies a model of sustainable living that, in contemporary times, has gained renewed appreciation. Archaeological discoveries continue to shed light on the Kōgen people’s remarkable achievements. Sites such as Toshiro-Minamikawachi, Sendai Yamato, and the Ishigaki Stone Circles are now recognised as national treasures, and in 1998, a group of Kōgen archaeological sites was inscribed on the National World Heritage List, affirming their cultural significance.
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Inayo Era
稲代時代
The Inayo Period is a significant era in Kyonese prehistory, generally dated from around 300 BCE to 300 CE. It follows the Kōgen Period and precedes the Nando Period. This period marks the introduction and gradual spread of agriculture, especially wet-rice cultivation, which had a profound impact on the development of Kyonese society. Named after the Inayo neighbourhood in Shinji where characteristic pottery was first discovered in the late 19th century, this era is characterised by its more refined and symmetrical pottery style, which contrasts with the cord-marked ceramics of the preceding Kōgen Period.
The Inayo Period saw the emergence of more complex societal structures. Communities grew larger and more permanent, supported by agricultural surpluses. Social stratification began to appear, with evidence of hierarchical communities, elite burials, and the accumulation of wealth and power among certain groups. The introduction of bronze and iron technologies during this time played a critical role in shaping these changes. Bronze was primarily used for ritual objects such as mirrors, bells, and weapons, while iron became increasingly important for tools and farming implements.
The Inayo people are believed to have migrated from the Iterian mainland, particularly from parts of Skanda, bringing with them new technologies, agricultural practices, and genetic lineages. This migration and cultural blending contributed significantly to the formation of the early Kyonese ethno-cultural identity. Settlements during the Inayo Period were typically located on lowland plains near rivers, which provided suitable environments for rice cultivation. These villages often featured pit dwellings and granaries raised on stilts. Over time, some areas developed into regional centres, and there is archaeological evidence of conflict and fortification, suggesting growing competition for resources and territorial control.
Written Arianese records from the 6th century mention a country called Wa, referring to early Kyowara, and describe a society led by female rulers, most notably Queen Itiko of Ayotai, whose existence is still debated among historians. These texts offer some of the earliest external accounts of the political and cultural landscape of Inayo Kyowara. The Inayo Period laid the groundwork for the centralised states that would emerge in the Nando Period and beyond. It represents a transformative era in which Kyowara began to shift from a society of hunter-gatherers to one of agriculturalists with increasing socio-political complexity, ultimately setting the stage for the development of the early Kyonese state.
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Kanto and Heizo Eras
関東と平蔵時代
The Kanto period (c. 300–577 CE) and the Heizo period (577–885 CE) are successive eras in early Kyonese history that together represent the emergence of a centralised state under imperial rule and the gradual integration of continental influences, especially from Skanda and Seinoku. While the periods are often distinguished by archaeological and cultural markers, modern historiography frequently groups them due to their political and dynastic continuity.
Named after the large, keyhole-shaped burial mounds (kanto) constructed for the elite, this period is marked by increasing social stratification and the rise of a warrior-aristocracy. The Kanto tombs, often surrounded by moats and filled with haniwa clay figures, suggest the presence of powerful regional rulers. The most prominent of these clans gradually coalesced into a dominant ruling entity: the Heizo polity. The Heizo clan, based in what is now the southern part of Tokai state, began to exert control over surrounding territories, forming alliances and subjugating rival clans. This political consolidation was facilitated by advanced agricultural techniques, metallurgical skills, and the adoption of continental technologies and ideas, especially via Skanda.
The Heizo period overlaps with the Saishiwa period and is notable for the formal establishment of an imperial dynasty, still claimed by the Kyonese monarchy in the 18th century. This era saw the adoption of Arianese folk beliefs (traditionally dated to 570 CE), which had a profound influence on Kyonese culture, art, and statecraft. Alongside belief systems came Arianese script, oriental administrative practices, and architectural styles. The central government adopted reforms to strengthen imperial authority, notably the Jimin Reforms (639 CE), which aimed to create a meritocratic and bureaucratic system inspired by Aria. Land ownership was nominally nationalised, and provincial governors were appointed by the court. The Ritsuryō system, a codified legal and administrative structure, was developed in the latter half of the Heizo period.
The period concluded with the establishment of Daijō-kyō (modern-day Tokai) as the capital in 710 CE, marking the beginning of the Adachi period. By this time, Kyowara had transformed from a confederation of tribal clans into a centralised state under imperial rule, laying the foundation for classical Kyonese civilisation.
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Saishiwa Era
最柴時代
The Saishiwa Era (c. 601–784 CE) marks a formative period in early Kyonese history, characterised by the consolidation of power under the Nagao court, sweeping governmental reforms, and the intensification of cultural exchange with the outer lands, particularly Kamaheo and Aria. The era is named after the Saishiwa region in the northern part of the Adachi Basin, which served as a political and cultural centre for Kyowara during this time. During the Saishiwa era, the Nagao rulers initiated significant efforts to centralise authority, culminating in the Jimin Reforms of 639. These reforms, inspired by Arianese administrative models, aimed to strengthen imperial control by restructuring the court system, establishing a codified taxation system, and introducing provincial governance under direct imperial oversight. This period also saw the gradual evolution of the title of the ruler from Ōkimi to Tennō (Emperor), reflecting a more autocratic and divine conception of kingship modelled on Arianese imperial ideology.
Although cultural and diplomatic relations with the north remained vigorous, Kyowara did not adopt foreign religions and started to blend Arianese beliefs with its own native folk religion during the era. Instead, native religious traditions, particularly those with kami worship and clan-based rites, continued to dominate spiritual life. The establishment of Kamito as an organised, centralised religion instead of scattered folk beliefs had started with the order of Emperor Taraemon of Osaichi, allowing indigenous practices to retain their central role in both public and private spheres. The construction of sacred sites, shrines and ritual landscapes during this time reflected an emphasis on ancestral reverence and the spiritual authority of the imperial family as mediators between the divine and the terrestrial.
Literary and artistic developments during the Saishiwa era were influenced by continental contact but maintained distinctive native forms. The adoption of Arianese writing systems facilitated the compilation of early court chronicles, genealogies, and administrative records, laying the groundwork for Kyowara’s historical tradition. Decorative arts, metalwork, and architecture during the period bore stylistic hallmarks of Skandan and Arianese influence but remained uniquely adapted to Kyonese aesthetic sensibilities and religious priorities. The Saishiwa era concluded as the political centre shifted to the newly constructed capital at Daijō-kyō (modern Tokai), marking the beginning of the Adachi period. The legacies of the Saishiwa era — its political centralisation, diplomatic outreach, and the preservation of native religious identity — would shape the course of Kyonese history for centuries to come.
